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Holland" in New Guinea, but they were rather marginal. They were linked to the NSB party and other fascist organisations.

Administrative divisions Edit Departments of Papua Department	Capital	1955 Population 1. Hollandia	Hollandia	57,000 2. Geelvinkbaai	Biak	78,000 3. Centraal Nieuw-Guinea	Wamena	52,000 4. Zuid Nieuw-Guinea	Merauke	78,000 5. Fak-Fak	Fak-Fak	28,000 6. West Nieuw-Guinea	Sorong-Doom	95,000 Total:	--	420,000 Departments of Papua Departments of Papua Origin of the dispute over New Guinea Edit In 1942, most parts of the Netherlands Indies were occupied by Japan.[1] Behind Japanese lines in New Guinea, Dutch guerrilla fighters resisted under Mauritz Christiaan Kokkelink.[2] During the occupation the Indonesian nationalist movement went through a rapid development. After Japan's surrender, Sukarno issued the Proclamation of Indonesian Independence, which was to encompass the whole of the Netherlands Indies. The Dutch authorities returned after several months under the leadership of Lieutenant-Governor-General Hubertus van Mook. Van Mook decided to reform Indonesia on a federal basis. This was not a completely new idea, but it was contrary to the administrative practice in the Netherlands Indies until then and contrary to the ideas of the nationalists, who wanted a centralist Indonesia.

Linggadjati agreement Edit The ethnic diversity of Indonesia was initially discussed at two conferences in Malino and Pangkalpinang. During the Pangkalpinang conference, the right of self-determination of the Eurasian, Chinese, and Arab ethnic minorities was discussed. The new Grooter Nederland-Actie (Extended Netherlands Action) send delegates to this conference, who opined that New Guinea should be declared as separate entities in a similar manner to Surinam.[3] Furthermore, this conference stipulated specific territories could have special relations with the Kingdom of the Netherlands if they wanted to.

Van Mook's plan was to divide Indonesia into several federal states, negaras, with possible autonomous areas, daerahs. The whole would be called the United States of Indonesia and would remain linked to the Netherlands in the Netherlands-Indonesian Union. The Indonesian side agreed to this plan during the Linggadjati conference in November 1946. Van Mook thought a federal structure would safeguard Indonesia's cultural and ethnic diversity. Van Mook and his supporters referred to the right of self-determination in this respect: the different ethnic communities of Indonesia should have the right to govern themselves.

The unilateral amendment of 'Linggadjati' Edit To many Dutchmen, the idea of parting with Indonesia was shocking. Many Dutch thought their country had a mission to develop Indonesia. The Indonesian wish for independence to many Dutch came as a complete surprise. Because Indonesian nationalists, which had no electoral or official legitimacy—save ethno-state nationalism, under Sukarno cooperated with the Japanese, they were branded as traitors and collaborators. Almost every Dutch political party was against Indonesian independence. The Protestant Anti-Revolutionary Party (ARP) were very supportive of the Dutch Ethical Policy in Indonesia. The newly established liberal People's Party for Freedom and Democracy campaigned for a hard-line policy against the nationalists. Even the Labour Party, which supported Indonesian independence in principle, was hesitant, because of the policies of Sukarno.

Minister of Colonies Jan Anne Jonkman defended the Linggadjati Agreement in Parliament in 1946 by stating that the government wished for New Guinea to remain under Dutch sovereignty, arguing it could be a settlement for Eurasians. A motion entered by the Catholic People's Party (KVP) and the Labour Party, which was accepted by parliament, stated that the declaration of Jonkman in parliament should become a part of the Linggadjati agreement. Duly accepted, the Netherlands thus unilaterally 'amended' the Linggadjati agreement to the effect that New Guinea would remain Dutch. Labour parliamentary group leader Marinus van der Goes van Naters said afterwards the Labour Party entered the motion with the KVP because it feared the Catholics otherwise might reject the Linggadjati agreements.

The Indonesians did not accept this unilateral amendment. In order not to jeopardise the scheduled transfer of sovereignty, the Indonesian vice-president Mohammad Hatta offered to maintain Dutch sovereignty over New Guinea for one year and reopen the negotiations afterwards.[citation needed]

1949–1956 Edit Thus in 1949, when the rest of the Dutch East Indies became fully independent as Indonesia, the Dutch retained sovereignty over western New Guinea, and took steps to prepare it for independence as a separate country. Some five thousand teachers were flown there. The Dutch put an emphasis upon political, business, and civic skills. On 8 February 1950 Stephan Lucien Joseph van Waardenburg was appointed the first Governor (De Gouverneur) of Dutch New Guinea. The first local naval cadets graduated in 1955 and the first army brigade become operational in 1956.

1957–1961 Edit

Dutch colonial civil servant in the Baliem Valley, 1958 Tensions regarding the Dutch-Indonesian dispute over Dutch New Guinea escalated in December 1957 following Indonesia's defeat in the UN General Assembly on 29 November 1957 to pass a resolution in favour of Indonesia's claim to the territory. Sukarno responded by allowing the seizure of Dutch enterprises operating in Indonesia and announcing the intended expulsion of Dutch residents from Indonesia. The increased tensions surrounding the dispute encouraged the Dutch to accelerate their plans to move the disputed territory towards an act of self-determination. Elections were held in January 1961 and the New Guinea Council officially took office on 5 April 1961, to prepare for full independence by the end of that decade. The Dutch endorsed the council's selection of a new national anthem and the Morning Star as the new national flag on 1 December 1961.[4][5]

Following the raising of the Papuan National Flag on 1 December 1961, tensions further escalated. On 19 December 1961 Sukarno issued the Tri Komando Rakjat (People's Triple Command), calling the Indonesian people to defeat the formation of an independent state of West Papua, raise the Indonesian flag in that country, and be ready for mobilisation at any time.[6][7]

Since 1962 Edit Escalation to low-level conflict Edit In 1962 Indonesia launched a significant campaign of airborne and seaborne infiltrations against the disputed territory, beginning with a seaborne infiltration launched by Indonesian forces on 15 January 1962. The Indonesian attack was comprehensively defeated by Dutch forces including the Dutch destroyers Evertsen and Kortenaer, the so-called Vlakke Hoek incident.[8] Amongst the casualties was the Indonesian Deputy Chief of the Naval Staff; Commodore Yos Sudarso. Unbeknown to the Indonesians, Dutch Signals Intelligence had been able to intercept Indonesian communications, allowing Dutch forces to successfully anticipate Indonesia's infiltration attempts throughout 1962.[9] Forced to regroup, the Indonesians relaunched their campaign of infiltrations in March 1962. In the coming months over 500 Indonesian paratroops and special forces were covertly inserted into Dutch New Guinea, only to be decisively defeated by Dutch forces with the assistance of the indigenous population.[10]

Ellsworth Bunker proposal Edit Facing mounting international diplomatic pressure and the prospect of an Indonesian invasion force, the Dutch conceded to re-entering negotiations and agreed to the Ellsworth Bunker proposal on 28 July 1962, for a staged transition from Dutch to Indonesian control via UN administration, on the condition that a plebiscite would be held in future in the territory.[11] The agreement was signed on 15 August 1962 at the UN Headquarters in New York and the territory was placed under the United Nations Temporary Executive Authority in October 1962. It was subsequently transferred to Indonesia in May 1963.

The territory formally became part of Indonesia in 1969 after the Indonesian government, who shifted to New Order under President Suharto starting from 1966, conducted a Bunker proposal-based plebiscite termed the Act of Free Choice. The result, which under strong pressure from the military, unanimously wanted to become part of Indonesia. The UN General Assembly later accepted the result via the UN Resolution 2504. This act has been criticised by some in the international community, including the group International Parliamentarians for West Papua, which has termed the act "the act of no choice".

Governors Edit For governors before 1949, see List of governors of the Dutch East Indies. Jan Pieter Karel van Eechoud (29 December 1949 – 8 February 1950; acting) Stephan Lucien Joseph van Waardenburg (8 February 1950 – 24 April 1953) Jan van Baal (24 April 1953 – 31 March 1958) Jan Christoffel Baarspul (31 March 1958 – 1 May 1958; acting) Pieter Johannes Platteel (1 May 1958 – 28 September 1962) Henk Veldkamp (28 September 1962 – 1 October 1962; acting) See also Edit New Guinea portal Free Papua Movement German New Guinea Kaiser-Wilhelmsland New Guinea Operation Trikora Papua (Indonesian province) Papua Conflict Republic of West Papua Territory of New Guinea West New Guinea dispute West Papua (province) Western New Guinea References Edit Klemen, L (1999–2000). "The Fall of Dutch New Guinea, April 1942". Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. Womack, Tom (1999). "The capture of Manokwari, April 1942". Forgotten Campaign: The Dutch East Indies Campaign 1941–1942. Penders,"The West New Guinea Debacle", p. 63 J.D. Legge, Sukarno: A Political Biography, 402–03. Ron Crocombe, Asia in the Pacific Islands, pp. 286–87. Ide Anak Agung Gde Agung, Twenty years of Indonesian Foreign Policy 1945–1965, p. 303. Sukarno's "Trikora"-Speech Archived 11 October 2017 at the Wayback Machine. The commands are at the end of the speech. Penders, "The West New Guinea Debacle", p. 344 Platje, Weis; 'Dutch Sigint and the Conflict with Indonesia 1950–1962', Intelligence and National Security, Vol. 16, No. 1, 2001, pp. 285–312 Penders,"The West New Guinea Debacle", p. 366. Penders,"The West New Guinea Debacle", p. 375 Further reading Edit Bone, Robert C. The Dynamics of the Western New Guinea (Irian Barat) Problem (Cornell U.P. 1958) Finney, B.R. "Partnership in developing the New Guinea Highlands 1948–68," Journal of Pacific History 5 (1970), Henderson, William, West New Guinea. The dispute and its settlement (1973). Lijphart, Arend, The trauma of decolonisation. The Dutch and West New Guinea (New Haven 1966). Markin, Terence. The West Irian Dispute (U of Michigan Press, 1996). Penders, C.L.M., The West New Guinea debacle. Dutch decolonisation and Indonesia 1945–1962, Leiden 2002 KITLV Ploeg, Anton. "Colonial land law in Dutch New Guinea," Journal of Pacific History (1999) 34#2 pp 191–203 Pouwer, Jan. "The colonisation, decolonisation and recolonisation of West New Guinea," Journal of Pacific History (1999) 34#2 pp 157–79 Saltford. John. The United Nations and the Indonesian Takeover of West Papua, 1962–1969 (2003) In Dutch Edit Doel, H.W. van den, Afscheid van Indië. De val van het Nederlandse imperium in Azië (Amsterdam 2001). Drooglever, P.J., Een daad van vrije keuze. De Papoea’s van westelijk Nieuw-Guinea en de grenzen van het zelfbeschikkingsrecht (Amsterdam 2005). Holst Pellekaan, R.E. van, I.C. de Regt, J.F. Bastiaans, Patrouilleren voor de Papoea's: de Koninklijke Marine in Nederlands Nieuw-Guinea (Amsterdam 1989). Holst Pellekaan, R.E. van, I.C. de Regt, Operaties in de Oost: de Koninklijke Marine in de Indische archipel (1945–1951) (Amsterdam 2003). Huydecoper van Nigteveld, J.L.R., Nieuw-Guinea. Het einde van een koloniaal beleid (Den Haag 1990) Gase, Ronald, Misleiding of zelfbedrog. Een analyse van het Nederlandse Nieuw-Guinea-beleid aan de hand van gesprekken met betrokken politici en diplomaten (Baarn 1984). Geus, P.B.R. de, De Nieuw-Guinea kwestie. Aspecten van buitenlands beleid en militaire macht (Leiden 1984). Jansen van Galen, John, Ons laatste oorlogje. Nieuw-Guinea: de Pax Neerlandica, de diplomatieke kruistocht en de vervlogen droom van een Papoea-natie (Weesp 1984). Klein, W.C. e.a., Nieuw-Guinea, 3 dln. (Den Haag 1953/1954). Meijer, Hans, Den Haag-Djakarta. De Nederlands Indonesische betrekkingen 1950–1962 (Utrecht 1994). Idem, "`Het uitverkoren land'. De lotgevallen van de Indo-Europese kolonisten op Nieuw-Guinea 1949–1962", Tijdschrift voor Geschiedenis 112 (1999) 353–384. Schoorl, Pim (red.), Besturen in Nederlands-Nieuw-Guinea 1945 -1962 (Leiden, 1996). Smit, C., De liquidatie van een imperium. Nederland en Indonesië 1945–1962 (Amsterdam 1962). van Holst-Pellekaan, R.E., de Regst, I.C. and Bastiaans, I.F.J. (ed.), Patrouilleren voor de Papoea's: de Koninklijke Marine in Nederlands Nieuw-Guinea 1945–1960 (Amsterdam, 1989). Vlasblom, Dirk, Papoea. Een geschiedenis (Amsterdam 2004). Wal, Hans van de, Een aanvechtbare en onzekere situatie. De Nederlandse Hervormde Kerk en Nieuw-Guinea 1949–1962 (Hilversum 2006). External links Edit

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